Introduction

From 1933 to 1945, Nazi Germany carried out a campaign to "cleanse" German society of individuals viewed as biological threats to the nation's "health." Enlisting the help of physicians and medically trained geneticists, psychiatrists, and anthropologists, the Nazis developed racial health policies that began with the mass sterilization of "genetically diseased" persons and ended with the near annihilation of European Jewry. With the patina of legitimacy provided by "racial" science experts, the Nazi regime carried out a program of approximately 400,000 forced sterilizations and over 275,000 euthanasia deaths that found its most radical manifestation in the death of millions of "racial" enemies in the Holocaust. This campaign was based in part on ideas about public health and genetic "fitness" that had grown out of the inclination of many late nineteenth century scientists and intellectuals to apply the Darwinian concepts of evolution to the problems of human society. These ideas became known as eugenics and found a receptive audience in countries as varied as Brazil, France, Great Britain, and the United States. But in Germany, in the traumatic aftermath of World War I and the subsequent economic upheavals of the twenties, eugenic ideas found a more virulent expression when combined with the Nazi worldview that espoused both German racial superiority and militaristic ultranationalism. The following bibliography was compiled to guide readers to selected materials on the history of Nazi racial science that are in the Library's collection. It is not meant to be exhaustive, and certain types of materials were not selected for inclusion in this bibliography, particularly dissertations and individual personal narratives. Annotations are provided to help the user determine the item's focus, and call numbers for the Museum's Library are given in parentheses following each citation. Those unable to visit might find these works in a nearby public or academic library, or acquire them through interlibrary loan. Talk to your local librarian for assistance.

Axis leaders Adolf Hitler and Italian prime minister Benito Mussolini meet in Munich, Germany, 1940.

AXIS ALLIANCE IN WORLD WAR II

World War II involved most of the world's nations. The war was fought chiefly between two major alliances: the Axis and the Allies. The Tripartite Pact of September 27, 1940, allied Germany, Italy, and Japan and became known as the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis, or Axis alliance. These three countries recognized German hegemony over most of continental Europe; Italian hegemony over the Mediterranean; and Japanese hegemony over East Asia and the Pacific.
During World War II, the Axis came to include Slovakia (November 1940), Hungary (November 1940), Romania (November 1940), and Bulgaria (March 1941). Finland fought with Germany against the Soviet Union but did not sign the Tripartite Pact and was not technically part of the Axis alliance. Yugoslavia joined the Axis alliance on March 25, 1941, but withdrew two days later after an anti-German coup. After Germany and its allies invaded and partitioned Yugoslavia, the newly established fascist satellite state of Croatia joined the Axis on June 15, 1941. Although an anti-democratic state sympathetic to the Axis, Spain refused either to join the Axis alliance or to enter the war with the Allies.

Axis alliance, 1939-1941See maps
World War II began in Europe with the German invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939. Great Britain and France--which had agreed to defend Poland in case of attack--in response declared war on Germany on September 3. Italy entered the war on June 10, 1940. Japan, at war in Asia since the 1930s, expanded the conflict with a surprise attack on the American fleet on December 7, 1941, at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii.
The Axis was defeated in the course of World War II. Italy signed an armistice with the Allies in September 1943. Germany surrendered unconditionally to the Allies in May 1945, as did Japan in September 1945.

On a Twenty20 high

The World Twenty20 played in South Africa last month was everything that the 2007 ICC World Cup wasn’t. A hit, for a start. The stands in all three venues — Johannesburg, Durban and Cape Town — were constantly full. The cricket look ed great, not for a moment dull, on television. The World T20, as it has come to be known (for branding demands brevity), was tightly scheduled, even if in hindsight three matches a day might have been a bit much. But that was a minor infraction, and faced little dissent.
On the face of it, the International Cricket Council’s experiment succeeded in the manner of the best reality shows. This was cricket reaching out and connecting with improbable fan bases.
The tournament was free of controversy — at any rate, no allegations of racism or murder were made — and had everything that spectators like to see in large doses: wickets, runs, sixes, fours, and giant screen replays for good measure. Crackling twists in plot kept us gripped; there was no clear favourite, and when each result was called, audience reactions varied from ecstatic to maudlin. Entertainment in cricket has never been so densely packed.
The time factor
T20 was a response to those who consider cricket an anachronism and incapable of further evolution. In order to justify its slowness, Test cricket might claim the defence of tradition: vociferous guardians of its sanctity equate inaction with good form. But the one-day game was designed in such a manner that its popularity rests wholly on its capacity to entertain.
Certainly, the last World Cup was symptomatic of cricket’s state of decline. It lasted too long, many matches were one-sided, and the tournament lurched from disaster to disaster like a Roman senator struggling to recover from a bout of gluttony. The pace of the game — ‘crawl’ would be understating things — had never attracted such negative publicity.
Time has always been a factor in sport. Major League Baseball now consciously seeks to bring the average game to a close in two hours 45 minutes, that statistic having ballooned over the years to nearly three hours. In cricket, there are penalties for time-wasting — things like excessive appealing contribute little to the drama. The three hour duration of Twenty20 — essentially the length of a Bollywood film -- is probably ideal, especially for an Indian audience.
Back in the 1960s, people didn’t have the luxury of spending five days watching a cricket match, and the one-dayer emerged as a sensible variation. This abbreviated form has gradually come to be dismissed as impractical: nobody has the time to follow a seven-hour game on television.
The shifting nature of audience tastes is not an accident. T20 fits the present transglobal culture of instant gratification. It is far from certain that we have hit saturation.

It is important to understand the nature of television entertainment. For most, it is a passive experience, a drip-feed of programmes. Fans are trained to respond mechanically to signposts such as wickets and boundaries, just as sitcom audiences are expected to echo the laughter track.
In the absence of reassuring chuckles, however, viewers feel disoriented — that was one reason for their disengagement from Arrested Development — and similarly, a time will come when the torrent of boundaries in T20 will devalue power and render the signpost meaningless.
This is a slippery slope. Soon, unless every innings begins to produce scores in excess of 250, interest will flag. There was much disappointment when Australia shot out Sri Lanka for 101. As such, few have the patience or the energy to engage with complications and subtleties in cricketing narrative; those are regarded as an indulgence for cricket aesthetes, a section that has little jurisdiction over the sport.
Any tinkering with the game’s structure must be financially viable, and will address popular demand. In T20s case, that coincides with the direction in which cricket is headed.
Mark Greatbatch and Sanath Jayasuriya gave us a hint of what to expect during successive ODI World Cups back in the 1990s. Their tactics have undeniably shaken up Test cricket.
Conservative batsmen are expected to modify their game and score at a run-a-ball. They are more prone now to fishing; bad balls are far more likely to earn a wicket.
Quick runs are of obvious benefit when trying to force a result. Australia pioneered the four-run-an-over approach, but not every side has replicated that success.
Conversely, it is possible to play good cricketing strokes in Twenty20, minimise risks and yet, as Yuvraj Singh proved, get to 50 off 12 balls — a record in any form save roadside cricket. Much pleasure may be derived from purity.
For the attendee in the stands, the odd chance that the ball might fly towards him and decapitate his neighbour will motivate him to pay attention. Part of his thrill lies in semi-direct involvement.
But from the perspective of the television viewer, the ball is not likely to breach the fourth wall and crash into his living-room furniture. The game still relies heavily on parochialism to retain interest. The promise of a good game is a bonus.

History will judge T20 as an artefact from a confused period. While this latest format appears fresh, it has not seen much innovation in bowling or stroke play, only an increased willingness on the part of the batsman to clout good balls for boundaries and sixes.
The flick over the batsman’s shoulder past fine-leg — which notoriously cost Misbah-ul-Haq his wicket and Pakistan the World T20 final — was probably the most interesting shot played; it was invented years ago by Zimbabwe’s Douglas Marillier, and memorably earned his side a win in a one-dayer against India in 2002.
The only way a bowler can repudiate assaults on his masculinity — spare a thought for Stuart Broad — is by varying his pace or bowling full outside the off-stump. The challenge lies in bowling maiden overs, not picking up wickets. Even if you manage to dismiss two batsmen, there is always someone waiting to clobber you for four sixes and two fours, and that’s all it takes to undo three tight overs.
Just as a piece of paper can only be folded so many times, cricket cannot suffer compression beyond a point. That need not imply the end of innovation, but the pressure to adapt will mount.
The World T20 was a smashing success, but the new format has a fair distance to cover, and a lot to prove, before it achieves permanence.

News For TheHindu(Government can fix quota: High Court )

CHENNAI, SEPT. 10. The MBA and MCA courses are `technical education' and colleges offering them are `technical institutions.' Hence the February 21 government order directing such institutions to apportion a certain percentage of seats to be filled by the Government itself is valid, the Madras High Court has ruled.
A Division Bench comprising Justice Prafulla Kumar Misra and Justice A.K. Rajan, held, ``it would be open to the State Government to fix a proportion of seats to be filled up through the state and leave a proportion to be filled up as management quota. Entry 25 in List III of Schedule VII of the Constitution, read with Article 162, enables the state to issue such directions.''
The Bench was passing orders on a batch of appeals against a single-judge order upholding the GO, which was issued after the All-India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) had come out with a set of guidelines on October 28, 2003.
The impugned GO stipulated that a common entrance test be conducted by the State Government for MBA/MCA admissions in government and aided arts and science as well as engineering colleges, besides in self-financing arts and science and engineering colleges.
As for the apportionment of seats, the order said 50 per cent of the seats in unaided, non-minority institutions and 30 per cent in unaided minority colleges would be filled through the state common entrance test applying the rule of reservation. The power of admissions based on the State-level CET was vested with the Director of Technical Education.
The appellants contended that MBA and MCA were not professional courses and the institutions offering them were not professional institutions, and hence the Supreme Court rulings in the T.M.A. Pai and Islamic Academy cases were not applicable to them. Also, the Government did not have the jurisdiction to carve out 50 per cent of the seats in such unaided institutions, they maintained.
`Validity unquestionable'
Vijay Narayan, counsel for the AICTE, said that since the validity of its guidelines had not been specifically challenged, and the Government's directions were in conformity with them, the validity of the GO could not be questioned. The AICTE guidelines, as followed by the State Government, were binding on these institutions.
Agreeing with his submissions, the judges cited Section 2(g) and 2(h) of the AICTE Act, and said there could not be any doubt that MBA and MCA and colleges offering them would come within the definition of technical education/institution.
`Generic sense'
The judges also reasoned: ``The expression `professional course' should be understood in a generic sense and would mean any course which prepares or trains a person with special skill and knowledge to enable such a person to pursue such profession with skill."
As for the apportionment of seats, they said, "in view of the Supreme Court rulings and in view of the guidelines issued by the AICTE, which recognise the right of the state to hold CET for admissions within the quota earmarked for the state, by no stretch of imagination can it be said that the action taken by the State is in any way contrary to the guidelines of the AICTE.''
The judges added, ``as a matter of fact, the validity of the AICTE guidelines have never been challenged in the writ petitions.

Female Heart Attack Symptoms: Calling 911

If you believe you’re having heart attack symptoms, dial 911 right away for an ambulance to take you to the emergency room. Wait no more than 5 minutes.
“As a doctor, I know from experience that when chest pains or other symptoms occur, most women are reluctant to call 911,” Goldberg says. “That’s precious time that we could be saving your heart muscle.”
Women often worry about being embarrassed if they’re not having a heart attack after all, she says. But embarrassment will pass without causing long-term damage; a heart attack may not.
Others don’t appreciate the seriousness of the situation. One of Goldberg’s patients had heart attack symptoms at age 57 and insisted on straightening up her house before she let her husband call 911. “This delay could have been fatal,” Goldberg says.
Calling for an ambulance is better than taking a taxi or having someone else drive you, Goldberg says. And unless you have absolutely no other option, you shouldn’t drive yourself. “You don’t want to pass out driving your car,” she says.
A big advantage to calling 911: emergency medical personnel can start treatment, such as oxygen, heart medication, and pain relievers, as soon as they arrive, says Mohamud Daya, MD, MS, an associate professor of emergency services at Oregon Health and Science University.
One more compelling reason to go by ambulance: “When you come into the emergency room with the [cardiac] monitor hooked up, you’re really taken seriously,” Goldberg says. “You look the part.”
Female Heart Attack Symptoms In the Emergency Room
When you reach the emergency room, describe your symptoms, but don’t offer your own conclusions, Goldberg says. “I wouldn’t go through this whole dissertation about how, ‘Oh, I thought it was a stomachache, I thought it was this.’ You should just tell the doctor how you feel. Don’t interpret it for them.”
If it doesn’t occur to the emergency room doctor to check for heart attack, be bold. Goldberg tells women to say outright: “I think I’m having a heart attack.” Because many doctors still don’t recognize that women’s symptoms differ, they may mistake them for arthritis, pulled muscles, indigestion, gastrointestinal problems, or even anxiety and hypochondria.
In short, female heart attack symptoms may be missed—and dismissed. When one of Goldberg’s patients entered the emergency room with such symptoms, doctors gave her antacids. “She said, ‘Listen, I’m diabetic and women’s heart disease symptoms can be different, and unless you give me an EKG, I’m not leaving this place.’ And the next day, she had a bypass.”
Of course, stomach pain could prove to be nothing more than a bad case of gastrointestinal illness. “But what I tell all my patients is, ‘It’s best to check out your heart first because a potential heart attack is life-threatening,’” Goldberg says.
And if your fear of cardiac problems turns out to be unfounded, don’t sweat it, she adds. Doctors would much rather diagnose you with indigestion than a heart attack.

Female Heart Attack Symptoms: Warning Signs That a Heart Attack May Be Coming

In the weeks preceding an actual heart attack, some of these symptoms may even appear as “prodromal,” or early, warning signs, according to the Circulation study.
Goldberg, who is familiar with the study, says, “About six weeks before the actual heart attack, women were more likely to experience shortness of breath, unexplained fatigue or stomach pain as an early warning sign that they might have a blocked artery.”
Rose was a prime candidate for a heart attack: a family history of cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure, high cholesterol and type 2 diabetes. Long before her heart attack, she had struggled with extreme fatigue.
“I felt like I was being rolled over by a steam engine—couldn’t make plans,” she says. Doctors put her on antidepressants. She also developed shortness of breath. “I was constantly gasping for breath.” But because of the depression diagnosis, “I thought this was an anxiety issue.”
“I did have symptoms of heart disease,” Rose says. “They just didn’t connect it and I didn’t connect it.”
If you get prodromal warning signs, call your doctor and talk about the possibility of heart disease.
“That’s the time to come in for an evaluation,” says Goldberg.
On the day of a heart attack, these symptoms can strike without any provocation; for example, shortness of breath may come without physical activity. Symptoms can appear during rest or even awaken a woman from sleep, and they’re much worse, Goldberg says.
“They just come on and they’re severe. I had one patient describing that she was so short of breath that she could barely talk to the 911 operator.”

Female Heart Attack Symptoms: What are They?

These chest-related heart attack signs often appear in men, and many women get them, too:
Pressure, fullness or a squeezing pain in the center of the chest, which may spread to the neck, shoulder or jaw;
Chest discomfort with lightheadedness, fainting, sweating, nausea or shortness of breath;
But many women don’t have chest pain. In the Circulation study on early female heart attack symptoms, researchers found that during a heart attack, 43% of the 515 women studied had no “acute chest pain… a ‘hallmark symptom in men,’” according to study authors.
Nevertheless, the study cited evidence that many emergency room doctors still look mainly for chest pain. Only a minority check for the other types of symptoms that women tend to develop. As a result, doctors may miss heart attacks in women.
“Although women can have chest tightness as a symptom of a heart attack, it’s also important for women to recognize that might not be their symptom,” says Nieca Goldberg, MD, a cardiologist and chief of Women’s Cardiac Care at Lenox Hill Hospital in New York City and author of “The Women’s Healthy Heart Program.”
“Women commonly have symptoms of shortness of breath, unexplained fatigue, or pressure in the lower chest, so they easily mistake it as a stomach ailment.”
In the Circulation study, common female heart attack symptoms include:
shortness of breath (57.9%)
weakness (54.8%)
unusual fatigue (42.9%)
Women also had these symptoms:
Nausea
Dizziness
Lower chest discomfort
Upper abdominal pressure or discomfort that may feel like indigestion
Back pain

Her Guide to a Heart Attack: Recognizing Female Heart Attack Symptoms

On a Monday morning in April, Merle Rose, a New Jersey woman, experienced what some doctors call “female heart attack symptoms;” a feeling of indigestion and extreme fatigue. Later, she had nausea, vomiting and fainting.
But she never had chest pain—a “typical” male heart attack sign. When she got to the emergency room, doctors couldn’t find any sign of heart attack and Rose says, “They would have sent me home.”
As Rose’s experience shows, many doctors—and women themselves--still don’t realize that female heart attack symptoms can look very different than those of men. In fact, according to a 2004 study of women’s early heart attack signs published in Circulation, women have more unrecognized heart attacks than men and are more likely to be, “mistakenly diagnosed and discharged from emergency departments.”
In the emergency room, physicians had assumed she had gastrointestinal illness. But at the time, no one told Rose that she had suffered a heart attack.
When an outside cardiologist recommended by Rose's regular doctor ordered testing that uncovered major blockages, doctors still made no mention of heart attack, she says.
So when did she finally get word? Not until several months later, when she visited a new female cardiologist. This doctor told her in retrospect that she had suffered a textbook case of undiagnosed female heart attack.
"That's the first I ever heard," Rose says. "This doctor told me, 'They didn't connect the dots.'"

1986: Seven dead in space shuttle disaster

The American space shuttle, Challenger, has exploded killing all seven astronauts on board.
The five men and two women - including the first teacher in space - were just over a minute into their flight from Cape Canaveral in Florida when the Challenger blew up.
The astronauts' families, at the airbase, and millions of Americans witnessed the world's worst space disaster live on TV.
The danger from falling debris prevented rescue boats reaching the scene for more than an hour.
In 25 years of space exploration seven people have died - today that total has been doubled.
President Ronald Reagan has described the tragedy as "a national loss".
The Challenger's flight, the 25th by a shuttle, had already been delayed because of bad weather. High winds, then icicles caused the launch to be postponed from 22 January.
But Nasa officials insist safety remains their top priority and there was no pressure to launch the shuttle today.
The shuttle crew was led by Commander Dick Scobee, 46. Christa McAuliffe, 37, married with two children, was to be the first school teacher in space - picked from among 10,000 entries for a competition.
Speaking before the launch, she said: "One of the things I hope to bring back into the classroom is to make that connection with the students that they too are part of history, the space programme belongs to them and to try to bring them up with the space age."
President Reagan has put off his state of the union address. He was meeting senior aides in the Oval Office when he learned of the disaster.

page2:Political Paralysis Lets Pakistan Militants Thrive

The crowd that turned out to mourn the cleric filled a stadium. Yet the mourners turned their ire on the government officials present, including the interior minister, Aftab Ahmad Khan Sherpao, forcing them to leave.
Still, the government prefers to pursue negotiations with the militants rather than fight them, said the governor of the North-West Frontier Province, a retired general, Ali Muhammad Jan Orakzai.
“Obviously our priority is peace, because if there is no peace there would be no development,” he said in a recent interview in the governor’s colonnaded residence in Peshawar.
The government wanted to renegotiate the peace agreements, introducing more stringent measures, and to win over the militants and tribespeople with the promise of a nine-year, $2 billion development program.
The governor said the military would be used where required. But he expressed the hope that once local security forces were better trained and equipped, the government could withdraw the military from the tribal areas, deploying troops only on the Afghan border.
For months, General Musharraf and his officials have talked similarly of the need for a comprehensive approach that involves political engagement, development and an increase in local security forces.
In support, the United States has pledged $750 million over five years in development assistance and is helping to train local security forces, the Frontier Corps and the Frontier Constabulary.
Javed Iqbal, the additional secretary for the tribal areas, also advocates negotiation over military action. “The use of force is not going to take us anywhere,” he said.
Yet the most important element — political engagement — is lacking, many in the region say. “If there is sincerity, the tribal elders and the people can mediate and find a negotiated solution to this problem,” said Malik Khan Marjan, a tribal elder from North Waziristan who heads a council of elders. “But there are no talks, only fighting,” he said.
Mr. Marjan heads the 67-member elected council for his region of North Waziristan. In all, there are 476 elected council members from the seven tribal regions.
Mr. Marjan said the government had never bothered with the council, and the council members had never met with the president, except once to attend a speech. “He did not have time to hear us,” Mr. Marjan said. “We had no chance to tell him what we think. Things are deteriorating and there are no decisions, no consultations.”
The predicament facing the government is illustrated by the capture on Aug. 30 of about 250 soldiers. The man holding them is Baitullah Mehsud, a veteran of fighting in Afghanistan. He is wanted for dispatching militants across the Afghan border and running militant training camps, according to the governor, Mr. Orakzai. He said the government was demanding that Mr. Mehsud free the soldiers. Tribal elders had negotiated the freedom of 32 men, and last week, Mr. Orakzai said he was hopeful they could negotiate an end to the ordeal.
Only days later, Mr. Mehsud dumped the bullet-ridden bodies of three soldiers at a gas station, after demanding that the military cease operations in the area.

Political Paralysis Lets Pakistan Militants Thrive

ISLAMABAD, Pakistan, Oct. 9 — Three days of fierce fighting have convulsed Pakistan’s tribal areas and exposed what tribal elders, politicians and local officials concede is the government’s lingering paralysis in dealing with the threat from Al Qaeda and Taliban militants spilling out of the region.

People flee Miran Shah, capital of Pakistan's tribal area of North Waziristan on Tuesday, after four days of fierce fighting between Islamic militants and security forces near the Afghan border.

The fighting, the heaviest in more than four years, has left at least 45 Pakistani soldiers dead as pro-Taliban militants and foreign fighters mount a vengeful campaign on all law enforcement in the area.
The clashes come on top of months of deteriorating security after the militants tore up peace agreements with the government in July. Since then, more than 250 members of the security forces have been killed in sustained attacks, the highest losses since the 1970s.
The upheaval underscores complaints by a range of officials that the government has been so absorbed in securing the re-election of Gen. Pervez Musharraf as president that it allowed the security threat to go unchecked.
Even after General Musharraf’s re-election on Saturday, parliamentary elections and wrangling between the president and an incoming civilian government could allow the situation in the tribal areas to drift even further, they warn.
“The whole system of government is in jeopardy and the people are confused,” Mehmood Shah, a retired brigadier who served as secretary of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas until 2005, said of the region.
“The government is absolutely paralyzed,” he added. “It will take some time for them to turn the tables.”
Today, by nearly all accounts, the government is caught in a double bind. After several years of trying to crush the militants, the government entered into a peace agreement with them and with the local tribes playing host to them in 2006. Those accords have now broken down.
At the same time, the government has concluded that it cannot defeat the militants with arms alone, officials say. The public, too, is against another military campaign, which it sees as serving an American agenda, not Pakistani interests.
Western officials, meanwhile, insist that if left alone, the militants and their Qaeda allies are more dangerous, because they can exploit the freedom of movement and the territory to train and plot more attacks in Pakistan, Afghanistan and even farther abroad.
The lack of focus and leadership in the government has left the police, bureaucrats, tribal officials and the military reluctant to act, Mr. Shah said, even in the face of increasingly brazen assaults. Clashes are reported almost daily, he said, and the attacks are almost always initiated by the militants.
“They are definitely reactive, not proactive,” a Western defense official said of the Pakistani military, speaking on condition of anonymity. The Pakistani Army still has a long way to go in training and adopting a new counterinsurgency doctrine, another Western military official added.
The militants and their Qaeda allies have taken advantage of the disarray to spread their attacks and influence on both sides of the Afghanistan-Pakistan border.
The fierce fighting of the past few days, which has included bombing by the Pakistani air force, has occurred in North Waziristan, where local pro-Taliban militants and members of Al Qaeda have carved out a stronghold for themselves since 2001.
And the militants continue to dispatch fighters, roadside bombs and suicide bombers to Afghanistan, according to Seth Jones of the Rand Corporation, who received security briefings from NATO and United States forces on a recent visit there.
They are also able to run an effective propaganda operation and to shelter high-level Qaeda members, including Ayman al-Zawahri, who is believed to be in or around the tribal region of Bajaur, he said.
Not least, the militants have sought to counter recent steps taken by the government to bolster local security forces and stem the militants’ influence in the neighboring North-West Frontier Province and beyond.
In fact, the militants have increasingly expanded from their early aim of fighting United States forces in Afghanistan to waging an insurgency inside Pakistan itself.
Even as a bloody siege between armed militants and security forces unfolded in July at the Red Mosque in Islamabad, the capital, tribesmen mounted numerous attacks on military checkpoints and police positions across the frontier area.
They then reached deep into the heart of the military and intelligence establishment with suicide bombings against a busload of intelligence personnel and at the mess hall of a special forces camp near Islamabad on Sept. 13.
Those who try to stand up to the militants face intimidation, or worse. On Sept. 15, Maulana Hassan Jan, a well-known cleric who was a mentor to many Taliban, was shot and killed in the frontier city of Peshawar after denouncing suicide bombing.

Physics of Hard Drives Wins Nobel

Michel Euler/Associated Press Ina Fassbender/ReutersPeter Grünberg

Albert Fert

Two physicists who discovered how to manipulate the magnetic and electrical properties of thin layers of atoms to store vast amounts of data on tiny disks, making iPods and other wonders of modern life possible, were chosen as winners of the Nobel Prize in Physics yesterday.

Albert Fert, of the Université Paris-Sud in Orsay, France, and Peter Grünberg, of the Institute of Solid State Research at the Jülich Research Center in Germany, will share the $1.5 million prize awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
They will receive the money in a ceremony in Stockholm on Dec. 10.
Dr. Fert, 69, and Dr. Grünberg, 68, each working independently in 1988, discovered an effect known as giant magnetoresistance, in which tiny changes in a magnetic field can produce huge changes in electrical resistance.
The effect is at the heart of modern gadgets that record data, music or snippets of video as a dense magnetic patchwork of zeros and ones, which is then scanned by a small head and converted to electrical signals.
“The MP3 and iPod industry would not have existed without this discovery,” Börje Johansson, a member of the Royal Swedish Academy, said, according to The Associated Press. “You would not have an iPod without this effect.”
In remarks broadcast over a speakerphone at the academy in Stockholm, Dr. Fert said: “I am so happy for my family, for my co-workers. And I am also very happy to share this with a friend.”
Experts said the discovery was one of the first triumphs of the new field of nanotechnology, the science of building and manipulating assemblies of atoms only a nanometer (a billionth of a meter) in size.
The scanning heads in today’s gizmos consist of alternating layers only a few atoms thick of a magnetic metal, like iron, and a nonmagnetic metal, like chromium. At that small size, the strange rules of quantum mechanics come into play and novel properties emerge.
The Nobel citation said Dr. Fert and Dr. Grünberg’s work also heralded the advent of a new, even smaller and denser type of memory storage called spintronics, in which information is stored and processed by manipulating the spins of electrons.
Engineers have been recording information magnetically and reading it out electrically since the dawn of the computer age, but as they have endeavored to pack more and more data onto their machines, they have been forced to use smaller and fainter magnetic inscriptions and thus more and more sensitive readout devices.
It has long been known that magnetic fields can affect the electrical resistance of magnetic materials like iron. Current flows more easily along field lines than across them. The effect was useful for sensing magnetic fields, and in heads that read magnetic disks. But it amounted to only a small change in resistance, and physicists did not think there were many prospects for improvement.
So it was a surprise in 1988 when groups led by Dr. Fert at the Laboratoire de Physique des Solides and by Dr. Grünberg found that super-slim sandwiches of iron and chromium showed enhanced sensitivity to magnetic fields — “giant magnetoresistance,” as Dr. Fert called it. The name stuck.
The reason for the effect has to do with what physicists call the spin of electrons. When the magnetic layers of the sandwich have their fields pointing in the same direction, electrons whose spin points along that direction can migrate freely through the sandwich, but electrons that point in another direction get scattered.
If, however, one of the magnetic layers is perturbed, by, say, reading a small signal, it can flip its direction so that its field runs opposite to the other one. In that case, no matter which way an electron points, it will be scattered and hindered from moving through the layers, greatly increasing the electrical resistance of the sandwich.
As Phillip Schewe, of the American Institute of Physics, explained, “You’ve leveraged a weak bit of magnetism into a robust bit of electricity.”
Subsequently, Stuart Parkin, now of I.B.M., came up with an easier way to produce the sandwiches on an industrial scale. The first commercial devices using giant magnetoresistance effect were produced in 1997.
Dr. Grünberg was born in Pilsen in what is now the Czech Republic and obtained his Ph.D. from the Darmstadt University of Technology in Germany in 1969. He has been asked many times over the years when he was going to win the big prize, and so was not surprised to win the Nobel, according to The A.P.
He said he was looking forward to being able to pursue his research without applying for grants for “every tiny bit.”
Dr. Fert was born in Carcassonne, France, and received his Ph.D. at the Université Paris-Sud in 1970. He told The A.P. that it was impossible to predict where modern physics is going to go.
“These days when I go to my grocer and see him type on a computer, I say, ‘Wow, he’s using something I put together in my mind,’” Dr. Fert said.

In NASA’s Sterile Areas, Plenty of Robust Bacteria

WASHINGTON, Oct. 6 — Researchers have found a surprising diversity of hardy bacteria in a seemingly unlikely place — the so-called sterile clean rooms where NASA assembles its spacecraft and prepares them for launching.
Samples of air and surfaces in the clean rooms at three National Aeronautics and Space Administration centers revealed surprising numbers and types of robust bacteria that appear to resist normal sterilization procedures, according to a newly published study.
The findings are significant, the researchers report, because they can help reduce the chances of stowaway microbes contaminating planets and other bodies visited by the spacecraft and confounding efforts to discover new life elsewhere.
“These findings will advance the search for life on Mars and other worlds both by sparking improved cleaning and sterilization methods and by preventing false-positive results in future experiments to detect extraterrestrial life,” said the leader of the study, Dr. Kasthuri Venkateswaran, a microbiologist at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif.
Identifying and cataloging what microbes might survive sterilization is important in interpreting results of sampling missions to other planets, scientists said. If similar microbes turn up in alien samples, researchers could disregard the results as contamination and not evidence of extraterrestrial life.
NASA tries to protect its spacecraft and their delicate components from dust and bacteria by assembling and testing them in rooms that are meticulously cleaned of dust and dirt by having their air continuously filtered to reduce fine particles. People working in these rooms wear coveralls with gloves and sometimes wear face masks.
Researchers from Dr. Venkateswaran’s Biotechnology and Planetary Protection Group and the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory published the results of their tests in the European journal FEMS Microbiology Ecology.
Samples taken from clean rooms at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the Kennedy Space Flight Center in Florida and the Johnson Space Center in Houston revealed almost 100 types of bacteria, about 45 percent of which were previously unknown to science, the study said. While some were common types that thrive on human skin, such as Staphylococcus species, others were oligotrophs, rarer microorganisms that have adapted to grow under extreme conditions by absorbing trace nutrients from the air or from unlikely surfaces like paint.
Traditionally, NASA has examined clean-room bacteria by taking samples of air and surfaces and trying to culture bacteria present in the laboratory. Dr. Venkateswaran said only a small fraction of bacteria could be found this way because most grow only in their native environments.
For their tests, the researchers used a genetic testing method not employed in clean rooms before, known as ribosomal RNA gene sequence analysis, which allowed them to study and decode a genetic marker common to all bacteria. The unique sequences of each type allowed the researchers to identify a greater number and diversity of bacteria than previously detected in the rooms.
While a few microorganisms, like those common on human skin, were found at all three sites, the study discovered that each room had a bacterial community largely unique to itself. Many factors could be responsible for this diversity, the researchers said, including the differing types of air filters and cleaning agents used and the facilities’ different geographic locations.
“I was surprised by what we found,” Dr. Venkateswaran said in an interview, “and as we continue to sample additional clean rooms, we may be in for even more surprises.”
Dr. Catharine A. Conley, a biologist who is the acting planetary protection officer at NASA headquarters, said the agency had long suspected that the organisms previously detected in clean rooms did not represent the full range that were there. Current cleaning techniques kill most common microbes, she said, and the resulting lack of competition could contribute to the number and diversity of the durable survivors found by the genetic testing approach.
“We know clean rooms can be much cleaner, and some are,” Dr. Conley said, citing some used by the semiconductor and pharmaceutical industries. “The problem is the cost. They are very expensive to build and maintain.”
Spacecraft going to areas where alien life is more likely to be found, like planets or moons with identifiable water, can be sterilized by a heat method that essentially bakes them for hours. But, she said, this runs the risk of damaging components.
Dr. Conley said NASA was experimenting with different techniques, including infusing spacecraft with vaporized hydrogen peroxide or a cold plasma of ionized gas, to attack the problem.
Spacecraft contamination is not just an issue for the United States, Dr. Conley noted. All space agencies sending out interplanetary probes follow cleanliness rules from an international organization called the Committee on Space Research. These standards vary depending on the type of mission, such as one that lands on a body versus orbiting it, and the likelihood that the destination bears life.

Dietary Treatments

A high-fiber diet that is low in fat and sugar can prevent the symptoms of diverticulosis and the development of diverticulitis.Ironically, in years past, the diet recommended for folks with diverticulosis was low in fiber. It was thought that "roughage" might irritate the diverticular pouches and trigger inflammation. Today, however, we know it's the absolute wrong approach. People who eat a low-fiber diet with few whole grains, fruits, and vegetables are actually more likely to develop diverticular disease than those who eat a high-fiber one.

Adding more fruits and vegetables to your

daily diet can prevent diverticulosis

To help prevent the disease or keep it under control, you should gradually add fiber to your diet and drink plenty of fluids. Eating regular meals, being physically active, getting enough rest, and keeping stress under control also are recommended.

high-fiber diet is recommended to reduce constipation and the corresponding pressure required to move waste through the intestines. The goal is to find the amount of fiber that allows you to have regular, easy-to-pass bowel movements; it's probably in the range of 20 to 35 grams of fiber daily. If you have not been eating much fiber, increase your intake gradually. If you get overzealous, you could make matters worse -- too much fiber too fast may cause gas and bloating.The age-old advice for people with diverticulosis was to avoid all nuts, seeds, and hulls. It is now recommended that only foods that are sharp, hard, or large enough to irritate or get caught in the diverticula be avoided. These include nuts, popcorn hulls, and sunflower, pumpkin, caraway, and sesame seeds. Other foods with small, soft seeds are generally not a problem; these include tomatoes, zucchini, cucumbers, strawberries, raspberries, and poppy seeds. If you have regular bowel movements that pass easily, you will probably be able to handle most foods. If you find a certain food bothers you, it might be best to avoid it.For a quick glance at what kind of high-fiber foods you should add to your diet gradually, check out the table below.
GOOD SOURCES OF FIBER FOR YOUR DIET
Fruits
Portion
Amount of Fiber
Apple, raw, with skin
1 medium
4 grams
Peach, raw
1 medium
2 grams
Pear, raw
1 medium
4 grams
Tangerine, raw
1 medium
2 grams
Vegetables
Portion
Amount of Fiber
Asparagus, fresh, cooked
4 spears
1 gram
Beans, baked, canned, plain
1/2 cup
6.5 grams
Beans, kidney, fresh, cooked
1/2 cup
8 grams
Beans, lima, fresh, cooked
1/2 cup
6.5 grams
Broccoli, fresh, cooked
1/2 cup
2.5 grams
Brussels, sprouts, cooked
1/2 cup
2 grams
Cabbage, shredded, raw
1 cup
2 grams
Carrots, fresh, cooked
1/2 cup
2.5 grams
Cauliflower, fresh, cooked
1/2 cup
1.5 grams
Lettuce, romaine
1 cup
1 gram
Potato, baked, with skin
1 medium
5 grams
Potato, fresh, cooked
1
3 grams
Spinach, fresh, cooked
1/2 cup
2 grams
Squash, summer, cooked
1 cup
3 grams
Squash, winter, cooked
1 cup
6 grams
Tomato, raw
1
1 gram
Grains
Portion
Amount of Fiber
Bread, whole-wheat
1 slice
2 grams
Cereal, 100% bran
1/2 cup
8 to 15 grams
Cereal, bran-flake
3/4 cup
5 grams
Oatmeal, plain, cooked
3/4 cup
3 grams
Rice, brown, cooked
1 cup
2.5 grams
Rice, white, cooked
1 cup
1 gram Vegetarian OptionSome researchers say that vegetarians have a lower rate of diverticular disease. Studies have shown that Seventh-Day Adventist vegetarians (who eat no beef, fowl, or seafood) have a diet that is higher in fiber and lower in fat than the diet of the general population and lower rates of diverticular disease and colon cancer.For someone with diverticulosis, you might want to consider adopting a vegetarian diet. The following are a few food selection tips:
Eat a variety of whole grains, beans, and vegetables, all of which provide protein.
Protein combining (eating beans together with rice, for example) is not necessary to get needed protein.
Do not overload your meals with eggs and dairy products; this will result in a diet high in fat and cholesterol.
Cook vegetables first if raw ones cause irritation.If you are looking for more remedies beyond diet, you can consider alternative treatments such as acupuncture, hydrotherapy, or herbal medicine. Check the last section for more details on alternative cures.This information is solely for informational purposes. IT IS NOT INTENDED TO PROVIDE MEDICAL ADVICE. Neither the Editors of Consumer Guide (R), Publications International, Ltd., the author nor publisher take responsibility for any possible consequences from any treatment, procedure, exercise, dietary modification, action or application of medication which results from reading or following the information contained in this information. The publication of this information does not constitute the practice of medicine, and this information does not replace the advice of your physician or other health care provider. Before undertaking any course of treatment, the reader must seek the advice of their physician or other health care provider.

Diverticular Disease Basics

For some people with diverticular disease, the pain can seem unbearable. The abdominal cramps, bloated feeling, and alternating bouts of diarrhea and constipation, can become so uncomfortable that you just want to stay home instead of going out to do errands or visit friends. But don't let this medical condition limit you or your everyday activities. Treatment options are available to prevent this disease, or if you already have it, keep it under control.In this article, we will discuss the causes and symptoms of diverticular disease. We also will look at various treatments available, from traditional medicine to alternative cures. Let's get started by reviewing the fundamentals of this medical condition.DefinitionDiverticular disease most often affects the colon. It's two stages are 1) diverticulosis, the abnormal presence of tiny pockets called diverticula, that bulge out from the wall of the colon, and 2) diverticulitis, in which body wastes and bacteria become trapped in the pockets, leaving them inflamed and sometimes pierced with holes. Many people who have the first stage never progress to the second.For diverticulosis, the little pouches or diverticula form when the inner lining of the large intestine is forced, under pressure, through weak spots in the muscular outer layer of the colon. Diverticulosis grows more common with age. Some 10 percent of Americans over age 40 have diverticulosis, and about half of those over age 60 do, too. Diverticulitis occurs when the little pouches become inflammed or infected, which can trigger constipation or diarrhea, gas, abdominal pain, fever, and mucus and blood in the stools. Diverticulitis occurs in 10 to 25 percent of people with diverticulosis.CausesAlthough there is no definitive answer to why the little pouches develop in the first place, many experts believe diverticula form as a result of the increased pressure needed to eliminate the small, hard stools characteristic of a low-fiber diet. The abnormal movement of the colon (possibly because of too little bulk in the diet) produces intense pressure, which forces the intestinal lining through weak spots in the muscular layer.Most people with simple diverticulosis have no discernable symptoms. Occasionally, however, a pouch next to a blood vessel may ulcerate, causing it to bleed. If the vessel is an artery, severe bleeding can result, which can become visible as bleeding from the anus. Shock and even death may result if the condition is not promptly given medical attention.

Diverticulitis is the inflammation of diverticula (small pouches that balloon out from the colon wall when the inner lining is forced through weak spots in the muscular lining). Inflammation often develops when a mass of hardened feces becomes trapped in a diverticulum, reducing the blood supply to the pouch wall and making it more susceptible to infection by bacteria in the colon.It has been estimated that about one-fifth to one-fourth of those who have diverticulosis will suffer from diverticulitis. Diverticulitis develops when a mass of hardened waste matter (called a fecalith) forms in a pouch and reduces the blood supply to the thin walls of the pouch (by means of pressure against the wall), making them more susceptible to infection by the bacteria of the colon. The inflammation that follows can lead to perforation, formation of an abscess (an enclosed sac of pus around the perforation), or peritonitis (infection of the lining of the abdominal cavity).Not infrequently, the inflamed section of bowel becomes attached to the urinary bladder or vagina, burrowing out from the colon to create a fistula (abnormal channel), which leaks infectious material into the other organ. Repeated inflammation can cause thickening of the wall of the colon. This thickening narrows the colon, which in turn may lead to partial or even total obstruction of the colon.SymptomsSymptoms of diverticulitis include intermittent crampy abdominal pains and tenderness, usually on the lower left side of the abdomen. Pain can also occur in other areas of the lower abdomen, sometimes resembling the pain of appendicitis. Pain that worsens during urination may indicate that the inflamed colon has become attached to the bladder. Stool (feces) or air in the urine may indicate a colon-to-bladder fistula. Constipation or constipation alternating with diarrhea is common. Fever is usually present with acute attacks.DiagnosisThe diagnosis of diverticulitis is usually made if there is a history of pain in the left lower section of the abdomen, accompanied by fever and a change in bowel habits. A physical examination may reveal a mass in that area, along with extreme tenderness. After the acute episode has subsided, the doctor may insert a proctosigmoidoscope (a lighted, tubelike instrument) through the anus and into the lower part of the colon to see if there is any evidence of cancer that might be causing the symptoms. X-ray examinations with a contrast medium are usually done to further rule out cancer and to locate diverticula, obstructions, and fistulas.TreatmentIf diverticulosis progresses to diverticulitis, bed rest, pain relievers, and antibiotics for the infection are usually the order of the day. The pain may come on suddenly and mimic appendicitis, although diverticulitis pain usually occurs on the left side, or the pain may build up slowly over a period of days. If you suspect your diverticulosis has progressed to diverticulitis, call your doctor and stick with a liquid or very low-fiber diet.The real danger with diverticulitis is that pouches may rupture and spill bowel contents into the pelvic cavity. This can cause serious bodywide infection. More often, however, the pouches become inflamed without actually rupturing and disrupt your normal bowel function.Occasionally, diverticulitis leads to obstruction, hemorrhage, abscess, or a leak through the bowel wall. These are serious conditions requiring immediate medical and perhaps surgical treatment. (If you have been diagnosed with diverticulosis, be sure you discuss with your doctor what to do in the event of a flare-up and what symptoms signal the need for immediate medical attention.)Treatment of severe diverticulitis begins with bed rest in a hospital and intravenous feeding; no food is given by mouth, to give the intestines a rest. Antibiotics are given if there is evidence of infection. (Less severe cases can be treated at home -- with bed rest, fluids, and antibiotics.) If peritonitis develops, it may be necessary to operate. The inflamed section of the colon may simply be cut out and the remaining sections joined. More often, a temporary colostomy (a surgically created opening in the abdominal wall, which allows the colon to empty to the outside of the body) is necessary. Later, after all inflammation and infection have subsided, the redirected portion of the colon is reconnected to the remaining portion of the colon or to the rectum.PreventionChoosing a diet with plenty of bulk may help prevent diverticulosis. People who have diverticulosis should eat a relatively high-fiber diet. Food supplements, such as psyllium, that serve to increase bulk may be recommended to move the stool through the colon at a normal rate.In the next section, we will show you how to gradually add fiber to your daily diet and the foods that you need to avoid.This information is solely for informational purposes. IT IS NOT INTENDED TO PROVIDE MEDICAL ADVICE. Neither the Editors of Consumer Guide (R), Publications International, Ltd., the author nor publisher take responsibility for any possible consequences from any treatment, procedure, exercise, dietary modification, action or application of medication which results from reading or following the information contained in this information. The publication of this information does not constitute the practice of medicine, and this information does not replace the advice of your physician or other health care provider. Before undertaking any course of treatment, the reader must seek the advice of their physician or other health care provider.

Heart and circulatory system — How they work

Your heart is a pump. It's a muscular organ about the size of your fist and located slightly left of center in your chest.
Your heart is divided into the right and the left side. The division protects oxygen-rich blood from mixing with oxygen-poor blood.
Together, your heart and blood vessels comprise your cardiovascular system, which circulates blood and oxygen around your body. In fact:
Your heart pumps about 5 quarts of blood every minute.
And it beats about 100,000 times in one day — that's about 35 million times in a year.
Oxygen-poor blood, "blue blood," returns to the heart after circulating through your body.
The right side of the heart, composed of the right atrium and ventricle, collects and pumps blood to the lungs through the pulmonary arteries. The lungs refresh the blood with a new supply of oxygen, making it turn red.
Oxygen-rich blood, "red blood," then enters the left side of the heart, composed of the left atrium and ventricle, and is pumped through the aorta to the body to supply tissues with oxygen.
Four valves within your heart keep your blood moving the right way.
The tricuspid, mitral, pulmonary and aortic valves work like gates on a fence. They open only one way and only when pushed on. Each valve opens and closes once per heartbeat — or about once every second.
A beating heart contracts and relaxes. Contraction is called systole, and relaxing is called diastole.
During systole, your ventricles contract, forcing blood into the vessels going to your lungs and body — much like ketchup being forced out of a squeeze bottle. The right ventricle contracts a little bit before the left ventricle does.
Your ventricles then relax during diastole and are filled with blood coming from the upper chambers, the left and right atria. The cycle then starts over again.
Your heart is nourished by blood too. Blood vessels called coronary arteries extend over the surface of your heart and branch into smaller capillaries. Here you can see just the network of blood vessels that feed your heart with oxygen-rich blood.
Your heart also has electrical wiring, which keeps it beating. Electrical impulses begin high in the right atrium and travel through specialized pathways to the ventricles, delivering the signal to pump.
The conduction system keeps your heart beating in a coordinated and normal rhythm, which in turn keeps blood circulating. The continuous exchange of oxygen-rich blood with oxygen-poor blood is what keeps you alive.

Atherosclerosis: Are You at Risk?

There are many risk factors that increase the likelihood of developing atherosclerosis and CAD. These include:
hypertension (high blood pressure)
diabetes
elevated cholesterol
smoking
sedentary lifestyle
stress
obesity
male sex
family history of heart disease
older age Obviously, some of these risk factors can be changed or controlled (on your own or with the help of your physician) and some cannot. And, some of these risk factors have an effect on each other. For example, many people can lower their blood pressure by simply giving up smoking. Also losing weight can help:
control blood sugar in diabetes
lower blood pressure
lower cholesterol
Age, Sex, Family historyYou cannot control your age, family history, or gender. However, you can use these risk factors as impetous to take control of those risk factors you can change. Because heart disease is more common as we age, it is even more important to pay attention to your weight, blood sugar, cholesterol levels, blood pressure and exercise regimen. Men, in general, are at increased risk for coronary artery disease. When women reach menopause and the protective effect of the estrogen hormone is lost, the risk among genders becomes equalized. Keep in mind that while estrogen replacement may reduce a woman's risk of heart disease, there's a slightly increased risk of some cancers. Also, CAD is more common if you have a close relative (mother, father, sibling) who has had CAD at an early age.
HypertensionHypertension (elevated blood pressure)is a risk factor for CAD. Hypertension can also lead to strokes, kidney disease, and aneurysms. Also, hypertension causes the heart to work harder and can lead to Congestive Heart Failure. Your blood pressure (BP) has two numbers. In a blood pressure reading, the upper number is called the systolic blood pressure. A systolic BP less than 140 is considered normal. The lower number is called the diastolic BP. A diastolic BP less than 90 is considered normal. Blood pressure that is slightly higher than this is called mild hypertension and can sometimes be reduced by weight loss, cessation of smoking, and decreased salt intake. However, medications may sometimes be necessary. There are six classes of medications to treat hypertension. These are:
Diuretics - Also known as "water pills" these medications -- such as hydrochlorothiazide and furosemide -- excrete extra water and salt to lower blood pressure.
Anti-Adrenergic drugs - Commonly called alpha and beta blockers, include medications such as Prazosin, Terazosin, Doxazosin, and Propranolol, Metoprolol and Atenolol. These block a part of the nervous system that increases blood pressure.
Vasodilators - Medications such as Hydralazine and Minoxidil work by relaxing blood vessels to lower blood pressure.
ACE (angiotensin converting enzyme) inhibitors - These medications work by dilating (enlarging) blood vessels by preventing the production of angiotensin which is a vasoconstrictor (blood vessel constrictor). Some commonly prescribed ACE inhibitors are Captopril, Enalapril, Lisinopril and Benazepril.
Angiotensin receptor antagonists - Medications such as Losartan and Valsartan are similar to ACE inhibitors and block the effects of angiotensin instead of preventing its production.
Calcium channel blockers - Because they block the calcium flow into cells which is needed to constrict blood vessels, medications such as Diltiazem, Verapamil, and Nifedipine work by dilating blood vessels.
SmokingSmoking leads to CAD as well as many other illnesses such as COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease which includes emphysema, asthma and chronic bronchitis). It also causes lung cancer, strokes and many other illnesses. Smoking may increase atherosclerosis as well. The nicotine in cigarettes causes constriction in blood vessels which causes an increase in blood pressure thereby causing the heart to work harder. Furthermore, nicotine may constrict coronary arteries and reduce blood flow to the heart muscle.
There are many ways to stop smoking. Usually it is best to quit completely either by yourself or with the help of support groups, along with the use of nicotine gum or a nicotine patch.
Elevated cholesterolThere is a definite relationship with elevated cholesterol and CAD. Cholesterol is transported in the blood by lipoproteins. Two of these lipoproteins are low density lipoprotein (LDL) and high density lipoprotein (HDL). An elevated level of LDL (the bad cholesterol) is associated with an increased risk of CAD. An elevated level of HDL (the good cholesterol) is associated with a decreased risk of CAD. Cholesterol levels can be lowered by eating a diet low in meat, eggs and dairy products. However, most of the cholesterol in the blood is produced in the liver. If a low fat diet does not sufficiently reduce your cholesterol, then your physician can prescribe medications to do so. There are four classes of medications that lower cholesterol:
Bile acid binding resin medications, such as cholestyramine and cholestipol, bind bile salts and prevent their reabsorption so that the body uses its cholesterol to keep making more bile salts.
Nicotinic acid (Niacin) decreases the production of LDL.
HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors decrease cholesterol synthesis. These medications include Lovastatin, Pravastatin, Simvastatin and Atorvastatin.
Fibric acid derivatives such as Gemfibrozil increase HDL and decrease triglyceride levels.
ObesityObesity is defined as being 20% over maximum desirable weight for your height. The Body Mass Index (BMI) is the most widely used formula for determining obesity: (weight/height2). A BMI of 20-25 is considered good, over 27 is considered overweight, and over 30 is considered obese. To calculate your BMI, visit this Web site. Obesity increases the risk of heart disease by increasing other risk factors such as high blood pressure, diabetes, and lowering HDL (good cholesterol).
Diabetes MellitusDiabetes Mellitus increases the risk of heart disease because it elevates cholesterol levels and increases atherosclerosis. Furthermore, people with diabetes are often overweight thereby exacerbating their diabetes and increasing the risk of heart disease. There are two types of Diabetes, Type I (insulin dependent) and Type II (non-insulin dependent). In Type I diabetes, very little or no insulin is produced by the pancreas so this condition is treated with insulin. In Type II diabetes, insulin is still being produced by the pancreas but the body is resistant to it. Type II diabetes can be treated by weight loss, a modified diet and an exercise regimen. If these methods are unsuccessful, medications called Oral Hypoglycemics are used. By increasing the secretion of insulin by the pancreas, these medications usually work. However, if these fail, insulin may be necessary.
StressHigh levels of stress and having what is known as a "Type A personality" may be risk factors for heart disease. Stress can cause your heart to work harder by increasing your blood pressure and pulse. Learning to calm down, slow down, and relax can help ease the effects of stress. It can also be beneficial to avoid caffeine and nicotine, and incorporate some type of exercise regimen into your daily routine.
Sedentary LifestyleHaving a sedentary lifestyle leads to being overweight which can then lead to diabetes and elevated blood pressure -- both are risk factors for CAD. Exercise may lower LDL and increase HDL. It also strengthens the heart and increases its efficiency as well as the efficiency of the body's use of oxygen. People who exercise generally have a slower pulse and this puts less strain on the heart.

Introduction to How Heart Disease Works

Heart disease is the leading cause of death in the U.S. At some point in your life, either you or one of your loved ones will be forced to make decisions about some aspect of heart disease. Knowing something about the anatomy and functioning of the heart, in particular how angina and heart attacks work, will enable you to make informed decisions about your health. Heart disease can strike suddenly and require you to make decisions quickly. Being informed prior to an emergency is a valuable asset to you and your family.
In this article we will discuss various heart diseases and how they can lead to a heart attack, or even a stroke. We will also look at how heart attacks are treated and what you should do to prevent heart disease.

The basics Coronary Artery Disease (CAD), Coronary Heart Disease (CHD), Ischemic Heart Disease (IHD) and Arteriosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease (ASCVD) are all different names for the same disease. This disease is caused by atherosclerosis, which is a buildup of fatty deposits (atheroma) in the coronary arteries. See the figure below:Coronary arteries supply blood to the heart muscle. When a blockage occurs in one of these arteries, blood flow to the heart muscle is decreased. This becomes most evident during exertion. During exertion, the heart muscle is working harder and needs more oxygen-enriched blood than usual. By preventing the much needed increase in blood flow, the blockage deprives the heart muscle of oxygen thereby causing the heart muscle to hurt. This chest pain is called angina or Angina Pectoris. When the heart muscle goes without sufficient oxygen, the muscle is said to be ischemic. If cell death occurs it is called infarction. Since a heart attack is cell death of heart muscle (myocardium), it is called a Myocardial Infarction (MI). The condition that causes CAD, angina and heart attacks is called atherosclerosis.
Arteriosclerosis is a more general term for hardening of the arteries. Atherosclerosis is a type of arteriosclerosis that causes a buildup of fatty material (referred to as atheromas and plaques) along the inner lining of arteries. Depending on where these blockages occur, they can cause a number of different outcomes:
If the blockage occurs in a coronary artery, it causes chest pain (angina).
If the blockage is complete, it can cause a heart attack (Myocardial Infarction or MI).
If the blockage occurs in one of the arteries near the brain, a stroke can occur.
If a blockage occurs in a leg artery, it causes Peripheral Vascular Disease (PVD) and can cause pain while walking called intermittent claudication. Atherosclerosis takes many years, even decades to develop and the condition can easily go unnoticed. Sometimes symptoms such as angina will gradually indicate the condition. However, it can also become evident in a sudden and severe way, in the form of a heart attack.
Let's take a look at some of the risk factors for atherosclerosis. Some of these factors are things you can control. By being proactive, you could reduce your risk.

Blood Supply

Coronary arteries are the ones that we try to keep clear by eating a healthy diet. If coronary arteries are blocked a heart attack results.
The heart, just like any other organ, requires blood to supply it with oxygen and other nutrients so that it can do its work. The heart does not extract oxygen and other nutrients from the blood flowing inside it -- it gets its blood from coronary arteries that eventually carry blood within the heart muscle. Approximately 4 percent to 5 percent of the blood output of the heart goes to the coronary arteries (7 ½ ounces/minute or 225 ml/min).
There are two main coronary arteries (figure 6) - The left main coronary artery (1) and the right coronary artery (2) which arise from the aorta. The left main coronary artery divides into the left anterior descending branch (3) and the left circumflex arteries (4). Each artery supplies blood to different parts of the heart muscle and the electrical system.

The heart also has veins that collect oxygen-poor blood from the heart muscle. Most of the major veins of the heart (great cardiac vein, small cardiac vein, middle cardiac vein, posterior vein of the left ventricle, and oblique vein of the left atrium) drain into the coronary sinus which opens into the right atrium.
Coronary artery disease is caused by a blockage in one of the coronary arteries. When a coronary artery is partially blocked, that artery cannot supply enough blood to the heart muscle to meet its needs during exertion. When someone with coronary artery disease exerts himself or herself, it causes chest pain. This is due to lack of blood and oxygen to that part of the heart muscle and is called angina. If the obstruction worsens (more frequent angina episodes, with less exertion) a condition called unstable angina can occur. A heart attack happens when a coronary artery is completely blocked and no blood or oxygen is getting to the heart muscle served by that artery. This also causes chest pain and causes death to the heart muscle served by that artery.

Electrical System

Have you ever wondered what makes your heart beat? How does it do it automatically, every second of every minute of every hour of every day?
The answer lies in a special group of cells that have the ability to generate electrical activity on their own. These cells separate charged particles. Then they spontaneously leak certain charged particles into the cells. This produces electrical impuses in the pacemaker cells which spread over the heart, causing it to contract. These cells do this more than once per second to produce a normal heart beat of 72 beats per minute.
The natural pacemaker of the heart is called the sinoatrial node (SA node). It is located in the right atrium. The heart also contains specialized fibers that conduct the electrical impulse from the pacemaker (SA node) to the rest of the heart (see Figure 4). The electrical impulse leaves the SA node (1) and travels to the right and left atria, causing them to contract together. This takes .04 seconds. There is now a natural delay to allow the atria to contract and the ventricles to fill up with blood. The electrical impulse has now traveled to the atrioventricular node (AV node) (2). The electrical impulse now goes to the Bundle of His (3), then it divides into the right and left bundle branches (4) where it rapidly spreads using Purkinje fibers (5) to the muscles of the right and left ventricle, causing them to contract at the same time.
Any of the electrical tissue in the heart has the ability to be a pacemaker. However, the SA node generates an electric impulse faster than the other tissue so it is normally in control. If the SA node should fail, the other parts of the electrical system can take over, although usually at a slower rate

Although the pacemaker cells create the electrical impulse that causes the heart to beat, other nerves can change the rate at which the pacemaker cells fire and the how strongly the heart contracts. These nerves are part of the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system has two parts - The sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic nerves increase the heart rate and increase the force of contraction. The parasympathetic nerves do the opposite.
All this activity produces electrical waves we can measure. The measurement is typically represented as a graph called an electrocardiogram (EKG). Here is an example of three heartbeats from an EKG (Figure 5):

Each part of the tracing has a lettered name:
P wave - coincides with the spread of electrical activity over the atria and the beginning of its contraction.
QRS complex - coincides with the spread of electrical activity over the ventricles and the beginning of its contraction.
T wave - coincides with the recovery phase of the ventricles. Electrical system abnormalities can range from minor premature beats (skipped beats) that do not require treatment, to slow or irregular beats that require an artificial pacemaker

Blood Flow

All blood enters the right side of the heart through two veins: The superior vena cava (SVC) and the inferior vena cava (IVC) (see figure 3).
The SVC collects blood from the upper half of the body. The IVC collects blood from the lower half of the body. Blood leaves the SVC and the IVC and enters the right atrium (RA) (3).
When the RA contracts, the blood goes through the tricuspid valve (4) and into the right ventricle (RV) (5). When the RV contracts, blood is pumped through the pulmonary valve (6), into the pulmonary artery (PA) (7) and into the lungs where it picks up oxygen.Why does it happen this way? Because blood returning from the body is relatively poor in oxygen. It needs to be full of oxygen before being returned to the body. So the right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs first to pick up oxygen before going to the left side of the heart where it is returned to the body full of oxygen.
Blood now returns to the heart from the lungs by way of the pulmonary veins (8) and goes into the left atrium (LA) (9). When the LA contracts, blood travels through the mitral valve (10) and into the left ventricle (LV) (11). The LV is a very important chamber that pumps blood through the aortic valve (12) and into the aorta (13). The aorta is the main artery of the body. It receives all the blood that the heart has pumped out and distributes it to the rest of the body. The LV has a thicker muscle than any other heart chamber because it must pump blood to the rest of the body against much higher pressure in the general circulation (blood pressure).
Here is a recap of what we just discussed. Blood from the body flows:
to the superior and inferior vena cava,
then to the right atrium
through the tricuspid valve
to the right ventricle
through the pulmonic valve
to the pulmonary artery
to the lungs

2.Chambers and Valves

The heart is divided into four chambers: (see Figure 2)
1.right atrium (RA)
2.right ventricle (RV)
3.left atrium (LA)
4.left ventricle (LV)

Each chamber has a sort of one-way valve at its exit that prevents blood from flowing backwards. When each chamber contracts, the valve at its exit opens. When it is finished contracting, the valve closes so that blood does not flow backwards.
The tricuspid valve is at the exit of the right atrium.
The pulmonary valve is at the exit of the right ventricle.
The mitral valve is at the exit of the left atrium.
The aortic valve is at the exit of the left ventricle.
When the heart muscle contracts or beats (called systole), it pumps blood out of the heart. The heart contracts in two stages. In the first stage, the right and left atria contract at the same time, pumping blood to the right and left ventricles. Then the ventricles contract together to propel blood out of the heart. Then the heart muscle relaxes (called diastole) before the next heartbeat. This allows blood to fill up the heart again.
The right and left sides of the heart have separate functions. The right side of the heart collects oxygen-poor blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs where it picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. The left side of the heart then collects oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and pumps it to the body so that the cells throughout your body have the oxygen they need to function properly.
Pulse Rates
Everyone's pulse (average heart rate per minute) changes as we age. Here is a chart of average pulse rates at different ages:

Age Pulse
Newborn 130

3 months 140

6 months 130

1 year 120

2 years 115

3 years 100

4 years 100

6 years 100

8 years 90

12 years 85

adult 60 - 100

How Your Heart Works

Inside This Article
1.
Introduction to How Your Heart Works
Chambers and Valves
3.
Blood Flow
4.
Electrical System
5.
Blood Supply
6.
Lots More Information
7.
See all The Body articles
Everyone knows that the heart is a vital organ. We cannot live without our heart. However, when you get right down to it, the heart is just a pump. A complex and important one, yes, but still just a pump. As with all other pumps it can become clogged, break down and need repair. This is why it is critical that we know how the heart works. With a little knowledge about your heart and what is good or bad for it, you can significantly reduce your risk for heart disease.
Heart disease is the leading cause of death in the United States. Almost 2,000 Americans die of heart disease each day. That is one death every 44 seconds. The good news is that the death rate from heart disease has been steadily decreasing. Unfortunately, heart disease still causes sudden death and many people die before even reaching the hospital.
The heart holds a special place in our collective psyche as well. Of course the heart is synonymous with love. It has many other associations, too. Here are just a few examples:
have a heart - be merciful
change of heart - change your mind
to know something by heart - memorize something
broken heart - to lose love
heartfelt - deeply felt
have your heart in the right place - to be kind
cry your heart out - to grieve
heavy heart - sadness
have your heart set on - to want something badly Certainly no other bodily organ elicits this kind of response. When was the last time you had a heavy pancreas?
In this article, we will look at this important organ so that you can understand exactly what makes your heart tick.
The heart is a hollow, cone-shaped muscle located between the lungs and behind the sternum (breastbone). Two-thirds of the heart is located to the left of the midline of the body and 1/3 is to the right (see Figure 1).
Figure 1[Please note - Medical illustrations assume that the patient isfacing you so that the right and left correspond to the patient's right and left. That's why the left and right labels here seem backwards.]
The apex (pointed end) points down and to the left. It is 5 inches (12 cm) long, 3.5 inches (8-9 cm) wide and 2.5 inches (6 cm) from front to back, and is roughly the size of your fist. The average weight of a female human heart is 9 ounces and a male's heart is 10.5 ounces. The heart comprises less than 0.5 percent of the total body weight.
The heart has three layers. The smooth, inside lining of the heart is called the endocardium. The middle layer of heart muscle is called the myocardium. It is surrounded by a fluid filled sac call the pericardium.
Heart SoundsWhen someone listens to your heart with a stethoscope the sound is often described as lub-dub lub-dub. The first heart sound (lub) is caused by the acceleration and deceleration of blood and a vibration of the heart at the time of the closure of the tricuspid and mitral valves. The second heart sound (dub) is caused by the same acceleration and deceleration of blood and vibrations at the time of closure of the pulmonic and aortic valves.

Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi in His Own Words

I know the path. It is straight and narrow. It is like the edge of a sword. I rejoice to walk on it. I weep when I slip. God's word is: 'He who strives never perishes.' I have implicit faith in that promise. Though, therefore, from my weakness I fail a thousand times, I will not lose faith, but hope that I shall see the Light when the flesh has been brought under perfect subjection, as some day it must.

Search for Truth : I am but a seeker after Truth. I claim to have found a way to it. I claim to be making a ceaseless effort to find it. But I admit that I have not yet found it. To find Truth completely is to realize oneself and one's destiny, i.e., to become perfect. I am painfully conscious of my imperfections, and therein lies all the strength I posses, because it is a rare thing for a man to know his own limitations.
Trust in God : I am in the world feeling my way to light 'amid the encircling gloom'. I often err and miscalculate… My trust is solely in God. And I trust men only because I trust God. If I had no God to rely upon, I should be like Timon, a hater of my species.No Secrecy :I have no secret methods. I know no diplomacy save that of truth. I have no weapon but non-violence. I may be unconsciously led astray for a while, but not for all time. My life has been an open book. I have no secrets and I encourage no secrets.

Guidance :I claim to have no infallible guidance or inspiration. So far as my experience goes, the claim to infallibility on the part of a human being would be untenable, seeing that inspiration too can come only to one who is free from the action of opposites, and it will be difficult to judge on a given occasion whether the claim to freedom from pairs of opposites is justified. The claim to infallibility would thus always be a most dangerous claim to make. This, however, does not leave us without any guidance whatsoever. The sum-total of the experience of the world is available to us and would be for all time to come.
Self-sacrifice and Ahimsa : I am asking my countrymen in India to follow no other gospel than the gospel of self-sacrifice which precedes every battle. Whether you belong to the school of violence or non-violence, you will still have to go through the fire of sacrifice and of discipline.

No Defeatism : Defeat cannot dishearten me. It can only chasten me . . . . I know that God will guide me. Truth is superior to man's wisdom.

Trust : It is true that I have often been let down. Many have deceived me and many have been found wanting. But I do not repent of my association with them. For I know how to non-co-operate, as I know how to co-operate. The most practical, the most dignified way of going on in the world is to take people at their word, when you have no positive reason to the contrary.

My Leadership and Non Violence : They say I claim to understand human nature as no one else does. I believe I am certainly right, but if I do not believe in my rightness and my methods, I would be unfit to be at the helm of affairs.

My Work : I am content with the doing of the task in front of me. I do not worry about the why and wherefore of things… Reason helps us to see that we should not dabble in things we cannot fathom.